American English vs. English

Dear students,

In the following link you will find valuable information about the differences between American English and English.

Do not hesitate to ask any question whatsoever. Also, if you have any problems with the download link, let me know.

Enjoy your English learning journey.

Regards,

Prof. Antonio Recca

LINK: http://s000.tinyupload.com/?file_id=10284305509896556812

LET'S GLIDE TOGETHER
By Dr. Antonio J. Recca - UNLa

The pronunciation of English vowels is, by far, one of the most attention attracting matters to all those Romance languages speakers trying to learn English.

This paper is primarily intended for students attending the courses of English Phonetics at Universidad Nacional de Lanús.

The problem I have encountered ever since I started with Phonetics courses is the general and accepted belief that in English we write one way and pronounce the way round. This view has been probably held by many teachers in Argentina and has been passed on from generation to generation of teachers and learners at the same time.

Many students, and learners in general, would be more than surprised to learn that in Spanish we also glide our vowels and that Spanish becomes very difficult to pronounce by non Romance language speakers. We tend to assume that in Spanish we pronounce exactly the same way we write words.

Few of us have never noticed that the ‘e’ in the word ‘pero’ /pero/ is much shorter than the ‘e’ in the word ‘perro’. The same applies for ‘pera’ and ‘perra’, ‘huevo’ and ‘hueso’ and so forth.

More Spanish glides? The vowel ‘i’ in the word ‘inteligente’ /i:nteligente/ has a long ‘i:’ and a short ‘i’. Did you ever notice that? I am sure you DID never notice that.

The letter ‘u’ in the word ‘uva’ /u:va/ is long and a lip-rounded. But the ‘u’ in the word ‘bueno’ is not so lip-rounded.

Rule number one: People who live in glass houses should not throw stones! We write the words ‘hoy quiero queso’ but ‘h’ and both ‘u’ are mute, and final ‘y’ sounds as /i:/ while ‘y’ sounds different in the word ‘yo’. And ‘y’ sounds the same as ‘ll’ as in the word ‘caballo’. How messy is Spanish!

Rule number two: Don´t let your eyes betray your ears.

Rule number three: Sit back and relax. Don't get mad about some exceptional pronunciations such as ‘plait’, ‘quay’, ‘rough’, etc… Exceptions exist even in nature. We can find black cats, grey cats… They are all cats, but in different colours (glides/shades in Phonetics!).

Now, let us glide together the English vowels. Before any gliding exercise, we need to bear in mind what we mean by the word ‘glide’:

Gliding (of sounds) is formed by a movement of the articulating mechanism, a gradual changing sound from one position of speech organs to another –a gentle movement–.

English vowels come from the Roman alphabet, the same as Spanish vowels. And no doubt about it: ‘a’ /ei/, ‘e’ /i/, ‘i’ /ai/, ‘o’ /ou/, ‘u’ /ju:/. But in words, they tend to glide.

a = Glides into six different sound

Car / father

Man / fat

Cake / date (‘e’ at the end of words is used for lengthening the preceding vowel).

Many / any (rare words).

All / fall

Care / fare

e = Glides into five different sounds

Pen / bed

Be / me

Keep / see (notice double ‘ee’ glides into /i:/).

Ernest / walker (glides into Schwa when followed by ‘r’).

Mere / here

i = Glides into four different sounds

Thin / this (short ‘i’).

Dice / rise (see above: use of final ‘e’).

First / thirsty (glides into Schwa when followed by ‘r’).

Fire / dire (glides into Schwa. The vowel sound by itself is /ai/ and a Schwa sound is added).

o = Glides into eight different sounds

Form / born

Hot / not

Go / home

Do / move

Actor / educator (glides into Schwa at the end of words when followed by ‘r’).

Done / love

Foot / root (double ‘o’ glides into lip rounding ‘u:’).

Look / hook (double ‘o’ glides not into a lip rounded ‘u’).

By the way, here's a tip: all words ending in ‘ook’ never lip round except in the word ‘spook’! And also remember these exceptions: ‘blood’, ‘flood’, ‘door’, ‘floor’ and ‘brooch’. You can see a double ‘oo’ but it is pronounced neither /u:/ nor /u/. Don’t be so confused nor worried about these exceptions. Remember that in Spanish we write ‘zanahoria’ and ‘búho’ even though medial ‘h’ is mute!

u = Glides into five different sounds

Full / pull

Tube / muse (see above – use of final ‘e’).

Much / cut

Burst / curse (glides into Schwa when followed by ‘r’).

Sure / cure (glides into Schwa. The letter ‘u’ /ju:/ plus a Schwa).

We will deal with double vowels glides (the misnomers diphthongs/triphthongs) in another paper.

Dr. Antonio J. Recca was quoted to say: "the world is facing an unprecedented crisis in every aspect of social life & economic principles of the recent past seem no longer available to face the present crisis. European democracies in Spain, Greece, Italy and even the UK are challenged by mass demonstrators. Voices arise everywhere predicting the end of the free enterprise system (capitalism) to move to unknown paradigms... Workers are, by far, the most damaged and the benefits acquired after the Second WW seem to vanish quickly... With more than 12% unemployment in the EU and the US the future poses a real challenge to western democracies...”

Dr Antonio Recca and his team are researching on this and other topics at the Universidad Nacional de Lomas de Zamora.

Particles & Their Meanings

AWAY

Distance: Go away, walk away, run away, drive away, send away.

BACK

Return: Go back, come back, give back, stay back, stand back, look back.

DOWN

1 – Destruction: burn down, drink down, cut down, fall down.

2 – Writing: put down, write down, copy down, take down, pay down.

3 – Downward direction: walk down, go down, climb down.

IN

1 – From the exterior into the interior: go in, walk in, stay in, climb in.

2 – Routine: send in, hand in, practice in, listen in.

OUT

1 – From the interior to the exterior: go out, move out, walk out, climb out.

2 – Clearness/loudness: call out, write out, read out, copy out, mark out.

3 – Sudden action: burst out, pop out, break out.

4 – Disappearance, vanishing: turn out, die out, rub out, clean out.

5 – Extension & projection: stick out, point out, stretch out, hang out.

OFF

1 – Detaching, disconnection, departure, disappearance: plug off, set off, take off, see off, wear off, drive off, run off, fly off.

2 – Down to the ground but no destruction: jump off, fall off, tumble off,  slip off.

ON

1 – Attachment (opposite to OFF): plug on, stick on, fasten on, sew on, nail on.

2 – Progression & continuation: read on, walk on, speak on, run on.

OVER

1 – From side to side: turn on, come over, walk over.

2 – Consideration, inspection: read over, go over, talk over, read over.

THROUGH

1 – Traverse (preposition): look through, pass through.

2 – Endurance or pain: go through, pull through, push through, be through.

UP

1 – Upward movement: go up, climb up, drive up, move up.

2 – Verbs of movement (approach): come up, run up.

3 – Completion: read up, finish up, listen up, save up, drink up.

A Logical Way To Understand Phrasal Verbs & Teach Them

Before providing you with a set of rules about the way to interpret and use Phrasal Verbs, let us briefly revise some basic concepts:

Language can be defined as a vocabulary & way of using it prevalent in one or more countries. We can affirm that «language» is a system of signs so arranged to facilitate the understanding among humans. Whatever we think, there is a word; whatever we conceive, there is reason. Words are the signs of our ideas only, and not for the things themselves. Words describe things of which we can form mental pictures.

Language shapes our thoughts. Then, reasoning/logics is nothing more than language well arranged. A simple process: Thought is subjective speech.. Speech is objective thought.

A large vocabulary facilitates and enriches the master of a language. However we are all aware of the lack of semantic correspondence between L1 & L2.

All languages apply to certain structured grammar rules which have come to be known as UG (Universal Grammar). At the same time, every language is rich in idioms, proverbs, sayings, collocations and the English have added in «Phrasal Verbs» to complicate matters.

We need to be clear about the difference between idioms, collocations, proverbs, sayings & phrasal verbs. Idioms are forms of expressions peculiar to a language of a people. Idioms are closely related to the culture of the people rather than to a logical way to understand them.

A proverb is an adage transmitted from generation to generation and proverbs also have meaning in themselves. Proverbs cannot be transferred from L1 to L2 by using a logical criterion. Many proverbs are connected to historic events «to hunt with the hounds and run with the hare» could be never interpreted as «andar bien con Dios y con el diablo». There is a legend behind hunters and hares as there should be one behind our God and the Devil himself!

But what about the many times hated phrasal verbs? They do not match with the above mentioned structures any other language. Why have the English created this absurb way of expressing... Why do up the room when we can perfectly decorate our room? Ditto go along with when we can agree with?

«Nothing comes from nothingness», and there is a logical an actual story behind, mostly connected to the Norman invaders and the primitive Anglo Saxons in Britain.

Phrasal Verbs do have a logical way to be understood and taught and most important: to be used spontaneously by all speakers. It is a bad idea to ask our students to study them by heart. Let´s examine a practical case:

To clear = limpiar, aclarar.

And what about to clear away, off, in, back. Are we to learn those phrasals by heart? Even if we had a good memory, when/how are we to use them?

What is a phrasal verb?

It is just the combination of a verb and one or two particles. (The word itself has a hidden meaning: a phrase(al) is a group of words that does not make complete sense – neither do phrasals out of context)

The English saying runs «the sting is in the tail». We need to understand the tail (particle) to interpret the whole meaning. Students and learners of English in general become stuck on studying them as we concentrate on the verbs and not on the particles.

Look how easy it is. Go up, come up, climb up, walk up, drive up and all the UPS are easily understood as an expression of movement –upwards–. But take care UP also means completion.

Students: How many chapters of Book One do we have to read?

Teacher: Read it up! Meaning > read the whole book.

You have learnt now that phrasals with up have basically two meanings: upward movement or completion. For the remainder particles away, in, out, etc., I invite you to personally SHARE some hints on this topic in our lecture!

Spelling & Writing: An Irreconcilable Pair? English & Spanish – Inglés y Español

  By Dr. Antonio J. Recca

  

ENGLISH SPELLING - SOME HISTORY BACKGROUND

The British Isles were originally peopled by Saxons, Normans and Romans (Latins). At some point in time, English, French, and Latin were spoken.

The French invaders brought along their culture and their new and more precise words: chair for stool – stomach for belly and so forth. Also new adjectives were introduced: beautiful, enormous, delicious, etc., and many of the ous / eus-euse endings in French.

Around 950, Sir Orm (a clergyman) was entrusted to organize the language considering that English began to evolve as the spoken language. He had one big problem: how to adapt French words into the Saxon spelling. Exclude one or the other? He incorporated both by keeping words spelling as much as possible in their original language.

There is the wrong impression that English pronunciation is irreconcilable to spelling. What about Spanish spelling? Have you ever thought about it? I have introduced Spanish spelling to shoot two verbs in one shot and thus avoid claiming that Spanish is easy to write. We can see from the below rules that Spanish is not so easy to write (when correctly written) as it may look like at first glance. I hope these rules in Spanish writing shall be helpful to native Spanish speakers and confusions between “B/V” and “G/J” may be learnt through these very simple reminders.

Sir Orm introduces some simple concepts on the new spelling:

1) – The use of double consonants to keep a short sound: (avoid a glide)

Common

Local

Little

Title

SPANISH SPELLING

A) Las palabras agudas terminadas en vocal o en las consonantes n y s llevan acento: está, aquí, león, después.

Excepción: raíz. Si hay encuentro de vocal abierta y cerrada, aunque las palabras agudas no terminen como pide la regla general, se acentúan para indicar que no hay diptongo

2) – In order to differentiate phonetically like words W or K were introduced before the word:

Ring

Wring

Not

Knot

SPANISH SPELLING

B) Las palabras graves se acentúan cuando no terminan en n, s ni en vocal: útil, estéril, árbol, Sanlúcar.

Excepción: río, venían, huía, fría. Aunque son palabras graves terminadas en n o vocal, se acentúan para indicar que no hay diptongo.

Recordar que en general los monosílabos no se acentúan sino en algunos casos excepcionales: de, sol, sin, cruz, etc.

Los tiempos verbales que llevan acento ortográfico lo conservan aun cuando acrecienten su terminación agregando un afijo: esparcióse, quedóse.

3) – Final “E“ to lengthen the sound (produce a glide)

Cake – Make

SPANISH SPELLING

C) - Las palabras esdrújulas siempre llevan el acento ortográfico: árboles, simétrica, Ilíada, montículos, etc.

Recuerde que las mayúsculas pueden acentuarse o no, pero es preferible acentuarlas para evitar confusiones: Ángelus.

Los adverbios terminados en mente conservan el acento que le correspondería llevar como palabra simple: pálidamente, cóncavamente, etc.

Las palabras compuestas que, al unir sus elementos simples, se convierten en esdrújulas, se acentúan ortográficamente como todas las esdrújulas: parándose, volviéndose, etc.

4)– Ght is also used to lengthen –glide– in many English words:

Light – Night – Sight

Ditto oa in some old Saxon words:

Coat – Goat – Groan

SPANISH SPELLING

D) - No confunda:

Sé se acentúa porque es inflexión del verbo saber. También lleva acento cuando es imperativo del verbo ser.

Qué se acentúa cuando es interrogativo / exclamativo.

Más se acentúa cuando es adverbio de cantidad.

Mas no se acentúa cuando es conjunción.

Él se acentúa cuando es pronombre.

El no se acentúa cuando es artículo.

Sí se acentúa cuando es sustantivo o adverbio de afirmación.

Si no se acentúa cuando es conjunción.

Mí se acentúa cuando es pronombre.

Mi no se acentúa cuando es adjetivo posesivo.

Tú se acentúa cuando es pronombre.

Tu no se acentúa cuando es adjetivo posesivo (tú tienes tu libro)

Té - infusión, bebida.

Te - pronombre objetivo (te digo).

Cima - parte superior.

Sima (cavidad profunda en la tierra).

Hasta (preposición).

Asta - palo de la bandera.

Atajo (senda) o inflexión del verbo atajar.

Hatajo (pequeña porción de ganado).

Siervo (esclavo).

Ciervo (animal).

Haz (verbo hacer o porción atada de leña, hierba).

Has - inflexión del verbo haber.

As (carta).

Echa (verbo echar).

Hecha (verbo hacer).

Espiando.

Expiando (culpas).

Aquélla y ésta se acentúan cuando son pronombres sustantivos. Cómo, qué, quién, cuál se acentúan cuando son palabras interrogativas / exclamativas.

Sólo se acentúa si es adverbio.

Casa (vivienda) o voz del verbo casar (contraer matrimonio).

Caza (persecución).

Aún (con acento / todavía).

Aun (incluso).

Asiendo (tomando por el asa).

Haciendo(verbo hacer).

Ves (ver).

Vez (turno).

Vaso (recipiente).

Bazo (órgano del cuerpo).

Baso (verbo basar).

Cabo (extremidad, rango militar).

Cavo (verbo cavar).

Revelar (un secreto).

Rebelar (sublevar).

Estirpe (linaje).

Extirpe (extirpar – arrancar).

Onda (agua que se eleva).

Honda (instrumento para lanzar piedras).

Uso (verbo usar).

Huso (hilado).

Entretanto (adverbio).

Entre tanto (preposición y adjetivo – entre tanto ruido).

Echo (verbo echar).

Hecho (verbo hacer).

Savia (jugo que nutre las plantas).

Sabia (sabiduría).

Hierba (planta).

Hierva (verbo hervir).

Gira (verbo girar).

Jira (merienda campestre).

Masa (mezcla de un líquido y una materia pulverizada).

Maza (instrumento de madera dura).

Dé (verbo dar).

De (preposición).

Recuerde: fue, dio vio y algunos otros pretéritos indefinidos monosílabos se escriben sin acento.

5) – Words with the accent on the last syllable double the final consonant when affixing:

Refer – Referred

Kidnap – Kidnapping

Lug – Luggage

SPANISH SPELLING

E) – B o V: se escriben con B las terminaciones aba, aban, etc., del Pretérito Imperfecto de los verbos de la primera conjugación y del verbo ir de la tercera conjugación: estaban, amaba, iba.

Delante de consonante siempre se escribe B: blando, brazos, sombra.

Se escriben con B las palabras que empiezan con bio (del griego bios = ‘vida’), bibl (del griego ‘libro’) y bi (del latín ‘dos’). Biografía, Biología, binomio, biblioteca.

Las palabras terminadas en bilidad se escriben con B: sensibilidad, posibilidad.

Excepciones movilidad y civilidad

Las terminaciones en bundo y bunda se escriben con B: meditabundo, vagabundo.

Se escriben con B todas las inflexiones del verbo haber (no confundir fonéticamente con a ver): hubo, había.

Se escriben con B las palabras que empiezan con bu, bur, bus, bui: bueno, burla, buscar, buitre.

Antes de consonantes las palabras se escriben con B: imposible, hombre.

Se escriben con B los verbos terminados en bir: escribir, subir, cohibir.

Excepciones: vivir, servir, hervir, vuelo, vuelto, vuelco, vuestro.

Se escriben con V el pretérito indefinido, el pretérito y el futuro imperfecto del subjuntivo de los verbos: tener, andar, estar y sus compuestos.

Se escriben con V los adjetivos terminados en ava, eve, avo, eve, ivo, ivo.

Excepciones: árabe y sílaba.

Se escriben con V las palabras terminadas en viro, vira, ívoro, ivora.

Excepción: víbora.

Se escriben con V después de la sílaba ad: advertir, adversario.

Se escriben con V después de las sílabas lla, lle, llo, llu: lluvia.

Recuerde que las frases adverbiales a veces, a menudo, a través se escriben con sus dos elementos separados. En seguida puede escribirse de ambos modos: enseguida.

6) – Words ending in al, el, il, ol, ul, double the “L“ when affixing. In every case, regardless the accent. Just to keep the short vowel sound – refer to point 1)

Cancel – Cancelled

Annul – Annulled

Control – Controlled

SPANISH SPELLING

F) – Se escriben con C los verbos terminados en cer y cir: decir, cocer (cocinar).

Excepciones: coser (costura), toser y asir.

Los verbos cuyo infinitivo termina en C la mantienen en su conjugación, excepto en algunas personas del Presente de Indicativo, Subjuntivo e Imperativo, que toman la terminación ezco, ezca, ezcas.

El plural de vez es veces. Cambia la Z en C delante de e, i.

Excepciones: zig-zag, zinc (cinc), zenit (cenit), zedilla (cedilla), zebra (cebra), zelandés (celandés).

Se escriben con C la mayor parte de las palabras terminadas en cio, cia no acentuadas y sus plurales: ejercicio, inicio.

Excepciones: iglesia, gimnasio, anestesia, hortensia, ansia.

Se escriben con C los verbos que terminan en ciar: enjuiciar, carenciar.

Excepciones: ansiar y extasiar.

Se escriben con C las terminaciones diminutivas cecito, cecita, ecito, ecita, cito, cita.

Excepción: quesito

La terminación SE que llevan algunos verbos se escriben con S por ser variante del pronombre personal él: serenábase, relajábase.

Después de C nunca se escribre S: lección, sección.

La terminación ción se escribre con C: oración, discreción. Las que se escriben con S (pasión, diversión, visión) suelen tener una palabra afín (de la misma familia) que termina en so, sor, sivo o sible. Comparemos: visión = diviso, diversión = diverso.

Los femeninos terminados en azón se escriben con Z: razón, desazón.

Los verbos terminados en izar y sus derivados se escriben con Z delante de A y de O: paralizar, inutilizar.

Pero delante de E cambian la Z en C: paralicé, inutilicé.

Excepciones: divisé (divisar), pisamos (pisar), revisé (revisar). Ídem decomisar, guisar, improvisar, requisar, precisar y algunos otros.

 

Los sustantivos y adjetivos agudos terminados en iz, oz y uz se escriben con Z: voz.

Excepciones: anís, gris, Jesús, Dios, tos, dos y algunos otros.

Se escribe con Z la terminación azgo: hallazgo, mayorazgo.

Los adjetivos terminados en izo, iza se escriben con Z: fronterizo, rojizo.

Excepciones: indeciso, liso, impreciso y algunas otras pocas palabras.

Los sustantivos terminados en eza se escriben con Z: limpieza, pureza.

Los sustantivos abstractos terminados en eza se escriben con Z: tristeza.

7) - Prefixes follow the same pattern as above mentioned:

Prove - Approval

Ply - Apply

8) - Words of one syllable and written with one vowel letter do not end with the single consonants S, F, C, L or Z.

 

Miss – Jazz – Mess – Kiss – Cliff – Ass – Lass.

Exception: some old Saxons words such as: this, as, pus, his, if, bus, us, has, frolic, panic.

SPANISH SPELLING

G) – Los adjetivos terminados en oso, osa se escriben con S: piadoso, sabroso.

Antes de T siempre se escribe S: artista, historia.

Excepción: azteca.

Los adjetivos agudos terminados en es se escriben con S: inglés, francés

Excepción: soez.

Los sustantivos terminados en anza se escriben con Z: andanza, confianza.

Excepción: gansa.

La terminación azo de los sustantivos que significan golpe, estrépito se escriben con Z: manaza, hombrazo.

9 – Words of one syllable with one vowel letter cannot end in a single C but they require CK.

Luck – Sick – Pick, etc.

SPANISH SPELLING

H) – ¿J o G?

Se escriben con G las palabras que tienen la combinación gen: inteligencia, refulgen, original (origen).

Excepción: ajeno.

Se escriben con G los verbos terminados en ger y gir: encoger, fingir, sumergir.

Excepciones: crujir y tejer.

Se escriben con G las palabras que terminan en gio y gia: nostalgia, prestigio.

Se escriben con G todas las palabras que tienen la raíz griega log: ecológico, filología, mitología.

También se escriben con G las palabras de origen griego derivadas de geo: geografía, geometría.

Se escriben con G las palabras terminadas en gión: región, religión.

Se escriben con G las palabras terminadas en gía/gia: energía, sinergia.

Excepción: apoplejía, lejía, bujía, herejía y algunas otras muy raras excepciones.

Se escriben con J las palabras terminadas en aje: equipaje, linaje.

Excepción: ambages.

En general también se escriben con J las palabras terminadas en je.

Excepciones: auge, cónyuge, laringe, esfinge, falange.

Se escriben con J las palabras terminadas en jero, jera: mensajero, extranjero.

Excepción: ligero/a.

Se escriben con J los sonidos je/ji en ciertos verbos irregulares que no tienen G ni J en sus respectivos infinitivos: produjo (producir), trajo (traer).

Algunas palabras especiales que en su origen no tuvieron ni G ni J y que llevan J, su historia:

Ejecutar (latín: exsecutio).

Mujer (latín: mulier).

Ejército (latín: execitus).

Berenjena (árabe: bedenchen).

Jícara (mexicano: xicalli).

Jirafa (árabe: azorafa).

Jefe (francés: chef).

10) – Words containing two vowels require only K:

Look - Leek – Meek

SPANISH SPELLING

I) - Se escriben con H los verbos haber y hacer, y todos sus derivados.

Se escriben con H todas las palabras que en latín comienzan con F: hermosa (fermosa), hormiga (formicula), humo (fumus).

Las palabras compuestas conservan H: deshojar, deshonrar. También recuerde que algunas palabras tienen H intermedia: zanahoria, cohete, almohada, ahora, ahogar, desahuciado, ahínco, ahuecar, deshielo, coherente, exhibir, alcohol, etc.

Se escriben con H las palabras que empiezan con los diptongos hue , hie, hio, hia, hui: huerto, huevo, huele, hiedra, hielo, hiato.

Algunas palabras pierden la H en sus derivadas: osamenta (hueso), olores (huele), oquedad (hueco). Esto se debe a que en su origen no tenían H.

Se escriben con H las palabras que empiezan con om: hombre.

Excepciones: ombú y ombligo.

11) – Words with one syllable and one vowel letter never end in a single L but require LL.

Still – Pill – Mill.

Exception: Pal.

12) – The spelling EA has mostly two ways of pronunciation because of an historical assimilation process. /I:/ or /e/.

Exceptions: great, break, steak.

Heat / Head.

(Assimilation process = Forehead).

13) – Ph becomes F:

Physics, Philosopher.

14) – Only one vowel precedes dge.

Bridge – Ridge.

15) – Only one vowel precedes tch.

Match, Mitch, Bitch.

16) – Mute H for hour – honest – heir – honour – historical.

17) – Medial TH becomes /θ/ for Greek words.

Method, Mathematics.

18) – TH becomes /θ/ at the end of words.

Month, Moth, Cloth.

19) – TH is pronounced /ð/ in initial words of Saxon stock.

This, There, Though.

20) – TH has the same sound as above mentioned when medially used in words of Germanic origin.

Father, Mother, Brother.

21) – Remember:

Words ending in TH = /θ/ (cloth, bath).

Words ending in THE = /ð/ (clothe, bathe).

By the way, remember that our friends Mathilda, Thomas and Esther live near the Thames and they eat thyme! (Everyone of these TH is pronounced /T/ and not /θ/ or /ð/ as some people believe!)

22) – Words of German origin beginning with TH are always pronounced with /θ/: Danken (thank), Dinken (think).

23) – Do not worry about a few old words. GH = F: enough – laugh – rough – tough – slough – cough – trough – draught – chough.

In Spanish we also have our mute H in words such as zanahoria – coherente – alcohol – exhibir, etc.

24) – Mute W at the beginning (refer to point 2) and also with the words answer and sword.

Do not worry in Spanish all words ending in bilidad require B except for movilidad and civilidad, and if you have a close look at the Spanish spelling rules above mentioned, you will find that English spelling is not so absurd as Spanish learners have always claimed!

The lecturer welcomes any further comments and questions.

Email address: a_recca@hotmail.com