Friday, June 3, 2011

Particles & Their Meanings

AWAY
Distance: Go away, walk away, run away, drive away, send away.

BACK
Return: Go back, come back, give back, stay back, stand back, look back.

DOWN
1 – Destruction: burn down, drink down, cut down, fall down.
2 – Writing: put down, write down, copy down, take down, pay down.
3 – Downward direction: walk down, go down, climb down.

IN
1 – From the exterior into the interior: go in, walk in, stay in, climb in.
2 – Routine: send in, hand in, practice in, listen in.

OUT
1 – From the interior to the exterior: go out, move out, walk out, climb out.
2 – Clearness/loudness: call out, write out, read out, copy out, mark out.
3 – Sudden action: burst out, pop out, break out.
4 – Disappearance, vanishing: turn out, die out, rub out, clean out.
5 – Extension & projection: stick out, point out, stretch out, hang out.

OFF
1 – Detaching, disconnection, departure, disappearance: plug off, set off, take off, see off, wear off, drive off, run off, fly off.
2 – Down to the ground but no destruction: jump off, fall off, tumble off,  slip off.

ON
1 – Attachment (opposite to OFF): plug on, stick on, fasten on, sew on, nail on.
2 – Progression & continuation: read on, walk on, speak on, run on.

OVER
1 – From side to side: turn on, come over, walk over.
2 – Consideration, inspection: read over, go over, talk over, read over.

THROUGH
1 – Traverse (preposition): look through, pass through.
2 – Endurance or pain: go through, pull through, push through, be through.

UP
1 – Upward movement: go up, climb up, drive up, move up.
2 – Verbs of movement (approach): come up, run up.
3 – Completion: read up, finish up, listen up, save up, drink up.

A Logical Way To Understand Phrasal Verbs & Teach Them

Before providing you with a set of rules about the way to interpret and use Phrasal Verbs, let us briefly revise some basic concepts:

Language can be defined as a vocabulary & way of using it prevalent in one or more countries. We can affirm that «language» is a system of signs so arranged to facilitate the understanding among humans. Whatever we think, there is a word; whatever we conceive, there is reason. Words are the signs of our ideas only, and not for the things themselves. Words describe things of which we can form mental pictures.

Language shapes our thoughts. Then, reasoning/logics is nothing more than language well arranged. A simple process: Thought is subjective speech.. Speech is objective thought.

A large vocabulary facilitates and enriches the master of a language. However we are all aware of the lack of semantic correspondence between L1 & L2.

All languages apply to certain structured grammar rules which have come to be known as UG (Universal Grammar). At the same time, every language is rich in idioms, proverbs, sayings, collocations and the English have added in «Phrasal Verbs» to complicate matters.

We need to be clear about the difference between idioms, collocations, proverbs, sayings & phrasal verbs. Idioms are forms of expressions peculiar to a language of a people. Idioms are closely related to the culture of the people rather than to a logical way to understand them.

A proverb is an adage transmitted from generation to generation and proverbs also have meaning in themselves. Proverbs cannot be transferred from L1 to L2 by using a logical criterion. Many proverbs are connected to historic events «to hunt with the hounds and run with the hare» could be never interpreted as «andar bien con Dios y con el diablo». There is a legend behind hunters and hares as there should be one behind our God and the Devil himself!

But what about the many times hated phrasal verbs? They do not match with the above mentioned structures any other language. Why have the English created this absurb way of expressing... Why do up the room when we can perfectly decorate our room? Ditto go along with when we can agree with?

«Nothing comes from nothingness», and there is a logical an actual story behind, mostly connected to the Norman invaders and the primitive Anglo Saxons in Britain.

Phrasal Verbs do have a logical way to be understood and taught and most important: to be used spontaneously by all speakers. It is a bad idea to ask our students to study them by heart. Let´s examine a practical case:

To clear = limpiar, aclarar.

And what about to clear away, off, in, back. Are we to learn those phrasals by heart? Even if we had a good memory, when/how are we to use them?

What is a phrasal verb?

It is just the combination of a verb and one or two particles. (The word itself has a hidden meaning: a phrase(al) is a group of words that does not make complete sense – neither do phrasals out of context)

The English saying runs «the sting is in the tail». We need to understand the tail (particle) to interpret the whole meaning. Students and learners of English in general become stuck on studying them as we concentrate on the verbs and not on the particles.

Look how easy it is. Go up, come up, climb up, walk up, drive up and all the UPS are easily understood as an expression of movement –upwards–. But take care UP also means completion.

Students: How many chapters of Book One do we have to read?
Teacher: Read it up! Meaning > read the whole book.

You have learnt now that phrasals with up have basically two meanings: upward movement or completion. For the remainder particles away, in, out, etc., I invite you to personally SHARE some hints on this topic in our lecture!

Saturday, May 7, 2011

Spelling & Writing: An Irreconcilable Pair? English & Spanish – Inglés y Español

  By Dr. Antonio J. Recca

  
ENGLISH SPELLING - SOME HISTORY BACKGROUND

The British Isles were originally peopled by Saxons, Normans and Romans (Latins). At some point in time, English, French, and Latin were spoken.

The French invaders brought along their culture and their new and more precise words: chair for stoolstomach for belly and so forth. Also new adjectives were introduced: beautiful, enormous, delicious, etc., and many of the ous / eus-euse endings in French.

Around 950, Sir Orm (a clergyman) was entrusted to organize the language considering that English began to evolve as the spoken language. He had one big problem: how to adapt French words into the Saxon spelling. Exclude one or the other? He incorporated both by keeping words spelling as much as possible in their original language.

There is the wrong impression that English pronunciation is irreconcilable to spelling. What about Spanish spelling? Have you ever thought about it? I have introduced Spanish spelling to shoot two verbs in one shot and thus avoid claiming that Spanish is easy to write. We can see from the below rules that Spanish is not so easy to write (when correctly written) as it may look like at first glance. I hope these rules in Spanish writing shall be helpful to native Spanish speakers and confusions between “B/V” and “G/J” may be learnt through these very simple reminders.

Sir Orm introduces some simple concepts on the new spelling:

1) – The use of double consonants to keep a short sound: (avoid a glide)

Common
Local

Little
Title

SPANISH SPELLING

A) Las palabras agudas terminadas en vocal o en las consonantes n y s llevan acento: está, aquí, león, después.

Excepción: raíz. Si hay encuentro de vocal abierta y cerrada, aunque las palabras agudas no terminen como pide la regla general, se acentúan para indicar que no hay diptongo

2) – In order to differentiate phonetically like words W or K were introduced before the word:

Ring
Wring

Not
Knot

SPANISH SPELLING

B) Las palabras graves se acentúan cuando no terminan en n, s ni en vocal: útil, estéril, árbol, Sanlúcar.

Excepción: río, venían, huía, fría. Aunque son palabras graves terminadas en n o vocal, se acentúan para indicar que no hay diptongo.

Recordar que en general los monosílabos no se acentúan sino en algunos casos excepcionales: de, sol, sin, cruz, etc.

Los tiempos verbales que llevan acento ortográfico lo conservan aun cuando acrecienten su terminación agregando un afijo: esparcióse, quedóse.

3) – Final “E“ to lengthen the sound (produce a glide)

Cake – Make

SPANISH SPELLING

C) - Las palabras esdrújulas siempre llevan el acento ortográfico: árboles, simétrica, Ilíada, montículos, etc.

Recuerde que las mayúsculas pueden acentuarse o no, pero es preferible acentuarlas para evitar confusiones: Ángelus.

Los adverbios terminados en mente conservan el acento que le correspondería llevar como palabra simple: pálidamente, cóncavamente, etc.

Las palabras compuestas que, al unir sus elementos simples, se convierten en esdrújulas, se acentúan ortográficamente como todas las esdrújulas: parándose, volviéndose, etc.

4)Ght is also used to lengthen –glide– in many English words:

Light – Night – Sight

Ditto oa in some old Saxon words:

Coat – Goat – Groan

SPANISH SPELLING

D) - No confunda:

se acentúa porque es inflexión del verbo saber. También lleva acento cuando es imperativo del verbo ser.
Qué se acentúa cuando es interrogativo / exclamativo.
Más se acentúa cuando es adverbio de cantidad.
Mas no se acentúa cuando es conjunción.
Él se acentúa cuando es pronombre.
El no se acentúa cuando es artículo.
se acentúa cuando es sustantivo o adverbio de afirmación.
Si no se acentúa cuando es conjunción.
se acentúa cuando es pronombre.
Mi no se acentúa cuando es adjetivo posesivo.
se acentúa cuando es pronombre.
Tu no se acentúa cuando es adjetivo posesivo ( tienes tu libro)
- infusión, bebida.
Te - pronombre objetivo (te digo).
Cima - parte superior.
Sima (cavidad profunda en la tierra).
Hasta (preposición).
Asta - palo de la bandera.
Atajo (senda) o inflexión del verbo atajar.
Hatajo (pequeña porción de ganado).
Siervo (esclavo).
Ciervo (animal).
Haz (verbo hacer o porción atada de leña, hierba).
Has - inflexión del verbo haber.
As (carta).
Echa (verbo echar).
Hecha (verbo hacer).
Espiando.
Expiando (culpas).
Aquélla y ésta se acentúan cuando son pronombres sustantivos. Cómo, qué, quién, cuál se acentúan cuando son palabras interrogativas / exclamativas.
Sólo se acentúa si es adverbio.
Casa (vivienda) o voz del verbo casar (contraer matrimonio).
Caza (persecución).
Aún (con acento / todavía).
Aun (incluso).
Asiendo (tomando por el asa).
Haciendo(verbo hacer).
Ves (ver).
Vez (turno).
Vaso (recipiente).
Bazo (órgano del cuerpo).
Baso (verbo basar).
Cabo (extremidad, rango militar).
Cavo (verbo cavar).
Revelar (un secreto).
Rebelar (sublevar).
Estirpe (linaje).
Extirpe (extirpar – arrancar).
Onda (agua que se eleva).
Honda (instrumento para lanzar piedras).
Uso (verbo usar).
Huso (hilado).
Entretanto (adverbio).
Entre tanto (preposición y adjetivo – entre tanto ruido).
Echo (verbo echar).
Hecho (verbo hacer).
Savia (jugo que nutre las plantas).
Sabia (sabiduría).
Hierba (planta).
Hierva (verbo hervir).
Gira (verbo girar).
Jira (merienda campestre).
Masa (mezcla de un líquido y una materia pulverizada).
Maza (instrumento de madera dura).
(verbo dar).
De (preposición).

Recuerde: fue, dio vio y algunos otros pretéritos indefinidos monosílabos se escriben sin acento.

5) – Words with the accent on the last syllable double the final consonant when affixing:

Refer – Referred
Kidnap Kidnapping
Lug – Luggage

SPANISH SPELLING

E)B o V: se escriben con B las terminaciones aba, aban, etc., del Pretérito Imperfecto de los verbos de la primera conjugación y del verbo ir de la tercera conjugación: estaban, amaba, iba.

Delante de consonante siempre se escribe B: blando, brazos, sombra.

Se escriben con B las palabras que empiezan con bio (del griego bios = ‘vida’), bibl (del griego ‘libro’) y bi (del latín ‘dos’). Biografía, Biología, binomio, biblioteca.

Las palabras terminadas en bilidad se escriben con B: sensibilidad, posibilidad.

Excepciones movilidad y civilidad

Las terminaciones en bundo y bunda se escriben con B: meditabundo, vagabundo.

Se escriben con B todas las inflexiones del verbo haber (no confundir fonéticamente con a ver): hubo, había.

Se escriben con B las palabras que empiezan con bu, bur, bus, bui: bueno, burla, buscar, buitre.

Antes de consonantes las palabras se escriben con B: imposible, hombre.

Se escriben con B los verbos terminados en bir: escribir, subir, cohibir.

Excepciones: vivir, servir, hervir, vuelo, vuelto, vuelco, vuestro.

Se escriben con V el pretérito indefinido, el pretérito y el futuro imperfecto del subjuntivo de los verbos: tener, andar, estar y sus compuestos.

Se escriben con V los adjetivos terminados en ava, eve, avo, eve, ivo, ivo.

Excepciones: árabe y sílaba.

Se escriben con V las palabras terminadas en viro, vira, ívoro, ivora.

Excepción: víbora.

Se escriben con V después de la sílaba ad: advertir, adversario.
Se escriben con V después de las sílabas lla, lle, llo, llu: lluvia.

Recuerde que las frases adverbiales a veces, a menudo, a través se escriben con sus dos elementos separados. En seguida puede escribirse de ambos modos: enseguida.

6) – Words ending in al, el, il, ol, ul, double the “L“ when affixing. In every case, regardless the accent. Just to keep the short vowel sound – refer to point 1)

Cancel – Cancelled
Annul – Annulled
Control – Controlled

SPANISH SPELLING

F) – Se escriben con C los verbos terminados en cer y cir: decir, cocer (cocinar).

Excepciones: coser (costura), toser y asir.

Los verbos cuyo infinitivo termina en C la mantienen en su conjugación, excepto en algunas personas del Presente de Indicativo, Subjuntivo e Imperativo, que toman la terminación ezco, ezca, ezcas.

El plural de vez es veces. Cambia la Z en C delante de e, i.

Excepciones: zig-zag, zinc (cinc), zenit (cenit), zedilla (cedilla), zebra (cebra), zelandés (celandés).

Se escriben con C la mayor parte de las palabras terminadas en cio, cia no acentuadas y sus plurales: ejercicio, inicio.

Excepciones: iglesia, gimnasio, anestesia, hortensia, ansia.

Se escriben con C los verbos que terminan en ciar: enjuiciar, carenciar.

Excepciones: ansiar y extasiar.

Se escriben con C las terminaciones diminutivas cecito, cecita, ecito, ecita, cito, cita.

Excepción: quesito

La terminación SE que llevan algunos verbos se escriben con S por ser variante del pronombre personal él: serenábase, relajábase.

Después de C nunca se escribre S: lección, sección.

La terminación ción se escribre con C: oración, discreción. Las que se escriben con S (pasión, diversión, visión) suelen tener una palabra afín (de la misma familia) que termina en so, sor, sivo o sible. Comparemos: visión = diviso, diversión = diverso.

Los femeninos terminados en azón se escriben con Z: razón, desazón.

Los verbos terminados en izar y sus derivados se escriben con Z delante de A y de O: paralizar, inutilizar.

Pero delante de E cambian la Z en C: paralicé, inutilicé.

Excepciones: divisé (divisar), pisamos (pisar), revisé (revisar). Ídem decomisar, guisar, improvisar, requisar, precisar y algunos otros.
 
Los sustantivos y adjetivos agudos terminados en iz, oz y uz se escriben con Z: voz.

Excepciones: anís, gris, Jesús, Dios, tos, dos y algunos otros.

Se escribe con Z la terminación azgo: hallazgo, mayorazgo.

Los adjetivos terminados en izo, iza se escriben con Z: fronterizo, rojizo.

Excepciones: indeciso, liso, impreciso y algunas otras pocas palabras.

Los sustantivos terminados en eza se escriben con Z: limpieza, pureza.

Los sustantivos abstractos terminados en eza se escriben con Z: tristeza.

7) - Prefixes follow the same pattern as above mentioned:

Prove - Approval
Ply - Apply

8) - Words of one syllable and written with one vowel letter do not end with the single consonants S, F, C, L or Z.
 
Miss – Jazz – Mess – Kiss – Cliff – Ass – Lass.

Exception: some old Saxons words such as: this, as, pus, his, if, bus, us, has, frolic, panic.

SPANISH SPELLING

G)Los adjetivos terminados en oso, osa se escriben con S: piadoso, sabroso.

Antes de T siempre se escribe S: artista, historia.

Excepción: azteca.

Los adjetivos agudos terminados en es se escriben con S: inglés, francés

Excepción: soez.

Los sustantivos terminados en anza se escriben con Z: andanza, confianza.

Excepción: gansa.

La terminación azo de los sustantivos que significan golpe, estrépito se escriben con Z: manaza, hombrazo.

9 – Words of one syllable with one vowel letter cannot end in a single C but they require CK.

Luck – Sick – Pick, etc.

SPANISH SPELLING

H) ¿J o G?

Se escriben con G las palabras que tienen la combinación gen: inteligencia, refulgen, original (origen).

Excepción: ajeno.

Se escriben con G los verbos terminados en ger y gir: encoger, fingir, sumergir.

Excepciones: crujir y tejer.

Se escriben con G las palabras que terminan en gio y gia: nostalgia, prestigio.

Se escriben con G todas las palabras que tienen la raíz griega log: ecológico, filología, mitología.

También se escriben con G las palabras de origen griego derivadas de geo: geografía, geometría.

Se escriben con G las palabras terminadas en gión: región, religión.
Se escriben con G las palabras terminadas en gía/gia: energía, sinergia.

Excepción: apoplejía, lejía, bujía, herejía y algunas otras muy raras excepciones.

Se escriben con J las palabras terminadas en aje: equipaje, linaje.

Excepción: ambages.

En general también se escriben con J las palabras terminadas en je.

Excepciones: auge, cónyuge, laringe, esfinge, falange.

Se escriben con J las palabras terminadas en jero, jera: mensajero, extranjero.

Excepción: ligero/a.

Se escriben con J los sonidos je/ji en ciertos verbos irregulares que no tienen G ni J en sus respectivos infinitivos: produjo (producir), trajo (traer).

Algunas palabras especiales que en su origen no tuvieron ni G ni J y que llevan J, su historia:

Ejecutar (latín: exsecutio).
Mujer (latín: mulier).
Ejército (latín: execitus).
Berenjena (árabe: bedenchen).
Jícara (mexicano: xicalli).
Jirafa (árabe: azorafa).
Jefe (francés: chef).

10) – Words containing two vowels require only K:

Look - Leek – Meek

SPANISH SPELLING

I) - Se escriben con H los verbos haber y hacer, y todos sus derivados.

Se escriben con H todas las palabras que en latín comienzan con F: hermosa (fermosa), hormiga (formicula), humo (fumus).

Las palabras compuestas conservan H: deshojar, deshonrar. También recuerde que algunas palabras tienen H intermedia: zanahoria, cohete, almohada, ahora, ahogar, desahuciado, ahínco, ahuecar, deshielo, coherente, exhibir, alcohol, etc.

Se escriben con H las palabras que empiezan con los diptongos hue , hie, hio, hia, hui: huerto, huevo, huele, hiedra, hielo, hiato.

Algunas palabras pierden la H en sus derivadas: osamenta (hueso), olores (huele), oquedad (hueco). Esto se debe a que en su origen no tenían H.

Se escriben con H las palabras que empiezan con om: hombre.

Excepciones: ombú y ombligo.

11) – Words with one syllable and one vowel letter never end in a single L but require LL.

Still – Pill – Mill.

Exception: Pal.

12) – The spelling EA has mostly two ways of pronunciation because of an historical assimilation process. /I:/ or /e/.

Exceptions: great, break, steak.

Heat / Head.

(Assimilation process = Forehead).

13) – Ph becomes F:

Physics, Philosopher.

14) – Only one vowel precedes dge.

BridgeRidge.

15) – Only one vowel precedes tch.

Match, Mitch, Bitch.

16) – Mute H for hourhonestheirhonourhistorical.

17) – Medial TH becomes /θ/ for Greek words.

Method, Mathematics.

18)TH becomes /θ/ at the end of words.

Month, Moth, Cloth.

19) TH is pronounced /ð/ in initial words of Saxon stock.

This, There, Though.

20)TH has the same sound as above mentioned when medially used in words of Germanic origin.

Father, Mother, Brother.

21)Remember:

Words ending in TH = /θ/ (cloth, bath).
Words ending in THE = /ð/ (clothe, bathe).

By the way, remember that our friends Mathilda, Thomas and Esther live near the Thames and they eat thyme! (Everyone of these TH is pronounced /T/ and not /θ/ or /ð/ as some people believe!)

22) – Words of German origin beginning with TH are always pronounced with /θ/: Danken (thank), Dinken (think).

23) – Do not worry about a few old words. GH = F: enoughlaughroughtoughsloughcoughtroughdraughtchough.

In Spanish we also have our mute H in words such as zanahoriacoherentealcoholexhibir, etc.

24)Mute W at the beginning (refer to point 2) and also with the words answer and sword.

Do not worry in Spanish all words ending in bilidad require B except for movilidad and civilidad, and if you have a close look at the Spanish spelling rules above mentioned, you will find that English spelling is not so absurd as Spanish learners have always claimed!

The lecturer welcomes any further comments and questions.
Email address: a_recca@hotmail.com

Saturday, April 23, 2011

Any Problems with the Schwa? Weak & Strong Forms

By Dr. Antonio J. Recca

Weak & strong forms is probably one of the most striking features of the English language. Many foreigners still fail to pronounce correctly after many years of studying English: a remarkable fact!

I have been lecturing on English Phonetics for a long time now but it still calls my attention and my students´ even more, every time I teach the weak forms to them. It is really surprising for students to learn that the simplest sentence «I´m coming» becomes /m 'kʌmɪŋ/  or «those are books» becomes /ðəʊz ər bʊkz/.

I have come to ascertain that, in Argentina at least, many students and even graduates from Training Colleges and Universities are sometimes unable to understand a song in English. That becomes a big frustration to them after they have been studying English for so many years.

I took the task to search myself with my students in our Phonetics courses and I found out that students get very uncomfortable when they are asked about their understanding of any modern song they listen in.

On the other hand, I do not know why Lecturers and Teachers in general, do not draw the attention of students to this easy but so sensitive fact about strong & weak forms.

This paper is just a guideline to encourage students and English learners in general to break the barrier of inhibition and train their ears to a more relaxed way of understanding the spoken language. Understanding the spoken language should become the first enjoyment in the learning of a foreign language.

Before we go ahead with the weak forms, some theory is essential to set our starting point.

Stress: it is a very illusive matter to properly describe. Phonetically speaking, stress is perceived as an extra effort in the production of a sound element. This prominence is usually put down to pitch, duration, loudness or even quality. In fact, some outstanding linguists have preferred to define stress as an extra effort (production) and loudness (perception) and leave the word accent for other sorts of prominence.

From a phonology point of view, we need to tell between «word stress» and «sentence stress». In word stress we can find at least three levels of stress:

a)      One to carry the nuclear tone
b)      One to show weak stress
c)      One to act in an intermediary position

The rules for word stress are likely to be learned along with each word. The English stress system is a complicated one by nature of its evolution: Teutonic (early stress) and Roman (late stress). As a rule, we know where to expect word stress in isolated words. However more important to any foreigner learning English is the fact of sentence stress. Language is not merely a matter of sounds of words in isolation. Language is concerned with running speech and such characteristic features as elision, assimilation, gradation, liason, etc. Those features along with intonation, rhythm and stress make up the prosodic or suprasegmental features of the language, being highly overlaid on the segmentals «vowels & consonants».

It is suprasegmentals that give a language its characteristic quality which enables us to identify a spoken language although we may be unable to distinguish individual words. Pronunciation is then regarded not only as the ability to produce isolated sounds. Sounds always occur in a context. Without stress, rhythm and intonation our conversation would become flat and ambiguous.

First and foremost, we do clearly need to distinguish between an outstanding feature of the English language vs Spanish.

Spanish is a syllable - stressed language. This means that every syllable carries the same amount of time regardless whether they are stressed or not. For example: «Desolado» /de' so' la' do/.

English is a  stress - timed language. Stressed syllables occur at regularly spaced intervals, regardless of  the number of unstressed syllables in between. There is less time for each stressed syllable in proportion to the number of unstressed syllables occurring between stressed ones: words are run together and consequent contraction occurs. This is the main (or we may say  the only one) cause that brings on problems to the Spanish ears. Spanish speakers get frustrated whenever they fail to understand the spoken language which they would recognize perfectly well in either its written or false  (rhythmically incorrect) version.

The change we can easily perceive in the sound of some words has been termed gradation. Gradation is almost always produced by a monosyllabic grammatical word that connects words or sentences to each other. As they are connecting words, they seldom occur in isolation. These unstressed forms are commonly referred to as the weak forms. There are about thirty five or so of these gradation words. Gradation words have two forms: the weak or connecting function and the strong or isolated form. A common and easy example: The alphabet «a» /ei/, «b» / bi:/, etc. However we utter «a book» /ə bʊk/.

Weak forms are limited in number but their occurrence, in terms of discourse frequency, is overwhelmingly more common than strong forms. They are among the most used and common words of the English language. They must be regarded as the foundation in the language learning activity. If the ultimate purpose of English learning is to acquire the fluency and understanding of the language, then the mastery of these weak forms becomes imperative for teachers to explain and use them properly in practical every day speech.

There is another phenomenon which we refer to as reduction: contracted forms. They have historically been caused by the same crowding together of unstressed syllables between stressed ones (isn´t – must´ve been – shouldn´t ´ve been, etc.) It is still amazing why teachers pay so much attention and practice to contracted forms while weak forms are neglected in the same proportion.

The lack of transfer (omission of weak forms) brings about the incorrect pronunciation and difficulty in the understanding of the spoken language.

I detail below the most usual words having strong  weak & weak forms in their pronunciation. In every case an example is provided. It is remarkable the use of Schwa in many of the weak forms. This is so because the Schwa sound is of a very short duration, so short in fact that it may disappear completely. It is its neutral position which leads us to think of it as a vague vowel. The production of Schwa should not present difficulties to the Spanish speaking learner of English, other than a possible tendency to lip rounding and an insufficiently short articulation, both of which are easily corrected.

Words with strong and weak forms:
 
AM

I´m coming. 
/ m /
  
I´m reading.
/ əm /

Am I wrong?
/ æm  /

AN

He has an orange.
/ ən /

The article “an” is used before vowels.
/ æn /

AND

He dances rock and roll.
/ n /

And what about John?
/ ænd /

ARE

These are my friends.
/ ə /

Are these your friends?
/ ɑ: /

AS

He might come as well.
/ əz /

As she was coming out, her father arrived.
/ æz /

AT

Susan is at home.
/ ət /

Are you astonished at this?
/ at /

BEEN

I´ve been tired.
/ bɪn /

Have you ever been to Los Angeles?
/ bi:n /

BY

Two by two.
/ ba /

Written by me.
/ baɪ /

BUT

I was tired but went to school.
/ bət /

There was no one but John.
/ bʌt /

CAN

I can stay with you.
/ kən /

Can you read in English?
/ kæn /

COULD

You could have told me.
/ kəd /

Could you please open the door?
/ kʊd /

DOES

What time does she get up?
/ dəz /

She does the shopping every day.
/ dʌz /

FOR

He went out for a walk.
/ /

I am looking for my pen.
/ fɔ: /

FROM

I live a long way from here.
/ frəm /

Where is she from?
/ frɒm /

HAD

The train had left.
/ həd /

Had he a car?
/ hæd /

HAS

Peter has come.
/ əz /

Has she stayed long?
/ hæz /

HAVE

What have you done?
/ əv /

I have got a new car.
/ hæv /

HER

I saw her in the park.
/ ər /

This is her book.
/ hɜ: /

HIM

Tell him the truth.
/ ɪm /

It is Him (God)
/ hɪm /

HIS

Give him his book.
/ ɪm ɪz /

His name is Charles.
/ hɪz /

HIS

Peter is not here now.
/ pi:təz /

Is this your house?
/ ɪz /

MANY

How many more do you need?
/ haʊ mənɪ /

Not many more.
/ menɪ /

MA'AM

Yes ma´am.
/ məm /

Please madam, this way.
/ mæm /

MUST

She must be in London by now.
/ məst /

Must I stay now?
/ mʌst /

MY

My Lord.
/ mɪ /

My book is blue.
/ maɪ /

NOR

Neither she nor Peter know about it.
/ nər /

Nor do I.
/ nɔ: /

NOT

are not
/'ɑ:nt/
is not
/'ɪznt/
do not
/'dəʊnt/
does not
/'dʌznt/

OF

A glass of water.
/ əv /

News of the day.
/ ɒv /

OR

Five or six?
/ ə /

Seven or more?
/ ɔ: /

PER

Ten per cent.
/ /

Two per child.
/ pə: /

SAINT

St Paul´s.
/ sənt /

Saint pictures can be seen on church walls.
/ seɪnt /

SHALL

Where shall we go?
/ ʃəl /

I shall let you know.
/ ʃæl /

SHOULD
I should have known it.
/ ʃʊdəv /

Should I stay or should I go?
/ʃʊd - ʃʊd /

SIR

Sir John.
/ /

Yes, sir. It is yours.
/ sɜ: /

SO

Five or so.
/ faɪv ə ʊ /

SOME

Some wine, please.
/ səm /

Some are red.
/ sʌm /

SUCH

Such a silly thing to do.
/ sətʃ /

Go and meet such and such a person.
/ sʌtʃ - sʌtʃ /

THAN

More than four.
/ ðən /

I prefer riding than skating.
/ ðæn /

THAT

The book that I bought.
/ ðət /

That man is my friend.
/ ðæt /

THEM

Ask them for the money.
/ əm /

“Them“  is an object pronoun.
/ ðem /

THERE

There was only one.
/ ðə /

There you are! You´ve broken the lamp.
/ ðeə /

TILL

He’ll stay till Thursday.
/ təl /

I work from morning till night.
/ tɪl /

TIME/S

Two times two are four.
/ təmz /

What time is it?
/ taɪm /

US

Give us your money.
/ əs /

Us, the people of the USA.
/ ʌs /

WAS

I was right.
/ wəz /

Was I  right?
/ wɒz /

WERE

They were right.
/ /

Were they right?
/ wɜ:/

WHO

The boy who lives next door.
/ hʊ or ʊ /

Who is that boy?
/ hu: /

WILL

That will do.
/ ðætl dʊ /

Will you please stay quiet ?
/ wɪl /

WOULD
She would like to come.
/ wəd /

Would you mind staying quiet please?
/ wʊd /

YOU

I can see you.
/ jə /

You like French.
/ ju: /

YOUR

Make up your mind.
/ /

Your  time is up.
/ jɔ: /

TO

Before vowels: to ask - /tʊ ɑ:sk/
Before consonants: to render -  / rendə/


  Look at these compounds words: The suffix is always pronounced in the weak form:

 Gooseberry
/'gʊzbrɪ/

Ashford
/ʃfəd/

England
/'ɪŋglənd/

Bestline (proper nouns)
/Bestlɪn/

Gentleman
/'dʒentlmən/

Gentlemen
/'dʒentlmən/

Topmost
/'tɒpməst/

Plymouth
/'plɪməθ/

Saucepan
/'sɔ:spən/

Twopence
/'tʌpəns/

Threepence
/'θrepəns/

Fivepence
/'faɪfpəns/

Halfpenny
/'eɪpnɪ/

Nonsense
/'nɒnsns/

Wiltshire
/'wɪltʃə/

Somewhere
/'sʌm/

Vineyard
/'vɪnjəd/